Clinical Study

The Power of PCR in STI Diagnosis: Faster, More Accurate, and Cost-Effective

PCR-STI-Diagnosis-1-in-5-americans-has-an-sti

Allie Priego, PA-C • March 26, 2025

Did you know that 1 in 5 people in the U.S. currently have a sexually transmitted infection (STI)1? Many individuals may experience symptoms without realizing they could be linked to an STI, making timely and accurate testing critical. Understanding when to get tested—even if you’re asymptomatic—is essential for preventing complications, reducing transmission, and improving overall public health.

This article explores the latest research on PCR testing for STIs, emerging STI trends, and the most effective diagnostic options available.

Why PCR Testing Optimal for STI Diagnosis

PCR testing has revolutionized infectious disease detection, offering greater accuracy, faster results, and lower long-term healthcare costs compared to traditional methods. Studies show that using PCR-based diagnostics:

  1. Reduces outpatient visits – Patients who received a Syndromic Vaginitis PCR test had significantly fewer outpatient medical services in the 6 months following the initial diagnosis compared to those who received no diagnostic test.2
  2. Lowers healthcare costs – Syndromic multiplex RT-PCR diagnostics with next-day results for vaginitis are associated with lower outpatient and total healthcare costs over six months.3 Additionally, an analysis of healthcare claims across more than 200,000 women suggests that PCR-based testing for gynecological health may lead to lower subsequent healthcare costs.4
  3. Improves clinical outcomes – PCR assays for multiple STIs provided rapid and reliable results, outperforming traditional diagnostic methods in terms of speed and accuracy.5,6
  4. Prevents complications – Using NAATs for Chlamydia trachomatis significantly reduced the risk of PID compared to non-NAAT methods, highlighting the clinical benefits of rapid and accurate testing.7

STIs: Key Pathogens & Recommended Testing

Understanding which infections require testing and the best diagnostic methods can help clinicians make informed decisions.

  1. Chlamydia8 (Chlamydia trachomatis)
    • A bacterial infection that often has no symptoms but can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain if left untreated.
    • Symptoms: Abnormal discharge, pain during urination, pelvic pain, or asymptomatic presentation.
    • Diagnostic options: Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs)/PCR testing is recommended by the CDC due to high sensitivity and specificity; can also be detected with gram stains and bacterial culture.
  2. Gonorrhea8 (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)
    • Another bacterial STI that can cause symptoms and sequelae similar to chlamydia.
    • Symptoms: Abnormal discharge, painful urination, swollen testicles, or asymptomatic presentation.
    • Diagnostic options: Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs)/PCR testing is recommended by the CDC; can also be detected with gram stains and bacterial culture.
  3. Trichomoniasis8 (Trichomonas vaginalis)
    • A parasitic infection that can cause symptoms like itching and unusual discharge.
    • Symptoms: Vaginal or penile discharge, itching, pain during urination or sex, but over 75% of infections are asymptomatic.
    • Diagnostic options: Wet-mount microscopy is the traditional method due to low cost and point-of-care capabilities; NAATs/PCR are frequently used due to high sensitivity and specificity; bacterial culture is also available but infrequently used.
  4. Mycoplasma Genitalium8,9 (M. genitalium)
    • A slow-growing bacterial infection that has been recently recognized by the CDC as an STI. The CDC recommends only testing symptomatic individuals.
    • Symptoms: Largely asymptomatic, but when symptomatic can cause abnormal vaginal or penile discharge, painful urination, and has been linked to PID.
    • Diagnostic options: CDC recommends NAATs/PCR as Mycoplasma Genitalium is challenging to culture and cannot be detected via gram stain.
  5. Syphilis8 (Treponema pallidum)
    • A bacterial infection with distinct stages, often starting with painless sores. It can mimic other diseases, so it can be difficult to differentiate based on patient history and exam alone in the early stages of illness.
    • Symptoms: Sores (chancre), rash, swollen lymph nodes, or asymptomatic in early stages.
    • Diagnostic options: Serologic testing is crucial, typically starting with a non-treponemal test followed by a confirmatory treponemal test; NAATs and direct fluorescence antibody testing are also commercially available.
  6. Human Papillomavirus (HPV)8,10
    • A viral infection with several strains, some of which cause genital warts and others can lead to cervical or other cancers.
    • Symptoms: Genital warts, abnormal pap smears (in women).
    • Diagnostic options: Cytology (Pap Test), NAATs, Hybrid Capture 2 Test, genotyping and histopathology.
  7. Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)8
    • A viral infection that causes recurrent sores or blisters.
    • Symptoms: Painful blisters or sores in the genital, anal, or oral areas.
    • Diagnostic options: NAATs/PCR, viral culture, serologic testing, cytologic detection (Tzanck prep), direct fluorescent antibody testing.
  8. HIV8,12 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
    • The virus that causes AIDS, which affects the immune system.
    • Symptoms: Flu-like symptoms early on, followed by a long period with few or no symptoms.
    • Diagnostic options: The CDC recommends fourth-generation HIV-½ Antigen/Antibody (Ag/Ab) combination immunoassays for initial HIV testing. Other available tests are RNA testing, rapid point-of-care HIV tests (positives should be confirmed with a lab-based Ag/Ab assay), HIV home-test kits (test HIV antibodies).
  9. Hepatitis B and C8,13
    • Viral infections that affect the liver and can be transmitted sexually.
    • Symptoms: Jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain.
    • Diagnostic options: Serology is the cornerstone of hepatitis B testing, looking at a combination of antigens and antibodies to determine active, chronic infections or immune status. The initial Hepatitis C test is an anti-HCV antibody test, followed by HCV RNA (PCR), which confirms active infection and is used to diagnose both acute and chronic hepatitis C.

Conclusion

As research continues to highlight the benefits of PCR testing—such as improved accuracy, faster results, reduced healthcare costs, and better clinical outcomes—it is clear that both accurate and expedited diagnostic tests are essential in managing and preventing the spread of STIs. By identifying key pathogens and using the most effective diagnostic methods, healthcare providers can work together to prevent complications, reduce transmission, and promote better sexual health overall.

References

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, January 25). CDC estimates 1 in 5 people in the U.S. have a sexually transmitted infection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  2. Workowski, K. A., Bachmann, L. H., Chan, P. A., Johnston, C. M., Muzny, C. A., Park, I., Reno, H., Zenilman, J. M., & Bolan, G. A. (2021). Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports, 70(4), 1–187. Link
  3. Evans, A., Doshi, R., Yeaw, J., Coyle, K., Goldberg, S., Wang, E., Fragala, M. S., & Reddy, J. (2025). Healthcare utilization and costs following molecular diagnostic testing among patients with vaginitis. Journal of comparative effectiveness research, 14(1), e240173. Link
  4. Evans, A., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Utilization of Syndromic Vaginitis Diagnostic Testing Reduces 6-Month Follow-Up Outpatient Service Healthcare Costs-A Real-World Data Analysis. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 12(22), 2204. Link
  5. Evans, A., Singh, V., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Molecular Testing for Women’s Gynecologic Health: Real-World Impact on Health Care Costs. Population health management, 27(6), 405–407. Link
  6. Choe, H. S., Lee, D. S., Lee, S. J., Hong, S. H., Park, D. C., Lee, M. K., Kim, T. H., & Cho, Y. H. (2013). Performance of Anyplex™ II multiplex real-time PCR for the diagnosis of seven sexually transmitted infections: comparison with currently available methods. International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, 17(12), e1134–e1140. Link
  1. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  2. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  3. McGowin, C. L., & Anderson-Smits, C. (2011). Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women. PLoS pathogens, 7(5), e1001324. Link
  4. Arbyn, M., Ronco, G., Anttila, A., Meijer, C. J., Poljak, M., Ogilvie, G., Koliopoulos, G., Naucler, P., Sankaranarayanan, R., & Peto, J. (2012). Evidence regarding human papillomavirus testing in secondary prevention of cervical cancer. Vaccine, 30 Suppl 5, F88–F99. Link
  5. Gnann, J. W., & Whitley, R. J. (2016). Genital herpes. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(7), 666–674. Link
  6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.-b). Human immunodeficiency virus / HIV. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  7. Kwo, P. Y., Cohen, S. M., & Lim, J. K. (2017). ACG Clinical Guideline: Evaluation of Abnormal Liver Chemistries. The American journal of gastroenterology, 112(1), 18–35. Link

References

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, January 25). CDC estimates 1 in 5 people in the U.S. have a sexually transmitted infection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  2. Workowski, K. A., Bachmann, L. H., Chan, P. A., Johnston, C. M., Muzny, C. A., Park, I., Reno, H., Zenilman, J. M., & Bolan, G. A. (2021). Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports, 70(4), 1–187. Link
  3. Evans, A., Doshi, R., Yeaw, J., Coyle, K., Goldberg, S., Wang, E., Fragala, M. S., & Reddy, J. (2025). Healthcare utilization and costs following molecular diagnostic testing among patients with vaginitis. Journal of comparative effectiveness research, 14(1), e240173. Link
  4. Evans, A., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Utilization of Syndromic Vaginitis Diagnostic Testing Reduces 6-Month Follow-Up Outpatient Service Healthcare Costs-A Real-World Data Analysis. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 12(22), 2204. Link
  5. Evans, A., Singh, V., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Molecular Testing for Women’s Gynecologic Health: Real-World Impact on Health Care Costs. Population health management, 27(6), 405–407. Link
  6. Choe, H. S., Lee, D. S., Lee, S. J., Hong, S. H., Park, D. C., Lee, M. K., Kim, T. H., & Cho, Y. H. (2013). Performance of Anyplex™ II multiplex real-time PCR for the diagnosis of seven sexually transmitted infections: comparison with currently available methods. International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, 17(12), e1134–e1140. Link
  7. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  8. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  9. McGowin, C. L., & Anderson-Smits, C. (2011). Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women. PLoS pathogens, 7(5), e1001324. Link
  10. Arbyn, M., Ronco, G., Anttila, A., Meijer, C. J., Poljak, M., Ogilvie, G., Koliopoulos, G., Naucler, P., Sankaranarayanan, R., & Peto, J. (2012). Evidence regarding human papillomavirus testing in secondary prevention of cervical cancer. Vaccine, 30 Suppl 5, F88–F99. Link
  11. Gnann, J. W., & Whitley, R. J. (2016). Genital herpes. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(7), 666–674. Link
  12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.-b). Human immunodeficiency virus / HIV. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  13. Kwo, P. Y., Cohen, S. M., & Lim, J. K. (2017). ACG Clinical Guideline: Evaluation of Abnormal Liver Chemistries. The American journal of gastroenterology, 112(1), 18–35. Link

Allie Priego, PA-C DMSc

Medical Science Liaison

Allie Priego, PA-C DMSc

Medical Science Liaison

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PCR-STI-Diagnosis-1-in-5-americans-has-an-sti

Allie Priego, PA-C • March 26, 2025

Did you know that 1 in 5 people in the U.S. currently have a sexually transmitted infection (STI)1? Many individuals may experience symptoms without realizing they could be linked to an STI, making timely and accurate testing critical. Understanding when to get tested—even if you’re asymptomatic—is essential for preventing complications, reducing transmission, and improving overall public health.

This article explores the latest research on PCR testing for STIs, emerging STI trends, and the most effective diagnostic options available.

Why PCR Testing Optimal for STI Diagnosis

PCR testing has revolutionized infectious disease detection, offering greater accuracy, faster results, and lower long-term healthcare costs compared to traditional methods. Studies show that using PCR-based diagnostics:

  1. Reduces outpatient visits – Patients who received a Syndromic Vaginitis PCR test had significantly fewer outpatient medical services in the 6 months following the initial diagnosis compared to those who received no diagnostic test.2
  2. Lowers healthcare costs – Syndromic multiplex RT-PCR diagnostics with next-day results for vaginitis are associated with lower outpatient and total healthcare costs over six months.3 Additionally, an analysis of healthcare claims across more than 200,000 women suggests that PCR-based testing for gynecological health may lead to lower subsequent healthcare costs.4
  3. Improves clinical outcomes – PCR assays for multiple STIs provided rapid and reliable results, outperforming traditional diagnostic methods in terms of speed and accuracy.5,6
  4. Prevents complications – Using NAATs for Chlamydia trachomatis significantly reduced the risk of PID compared to non-NAAT methods, highlighting the clinical benefits of rapid and accurate testing.7

STIs: Key Pathogens & Recommended Testing

Understanding which infections require testing and the best diagnostic methods can help clinicians make informed decisions.

  1. Chlamydia8 (Chlamydia trachomatis)
    • A bacterial infection that often has no symptoms but can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain if left untreated.
    • Symptoms: Abnormal discharge, pain during urination, pelvic pain, or asymptomatic presentation.
    • Diagnostic options: Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs)/PCR testing is recommended by the CDC due to high sensitivity and specificity; can also be detected with gram stains and bacterial culture.
  2. Gonorrhea8 (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)
    • Another bacterial STI that can cause symptoms and sequelae similar to chlamydia.
    • Symptoms: Abnormal discharge, painful urination, swollen testicles, or asymptomatic presentation.
    • Diagnostic options: Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs)/PCR testing is recommended by the CDC; can also be detected with gram stains and bacterial culture.
  3. Trichomoniasis8 (Trichomonas vaginalis)
    • A parasitic infection that can cause symptoms like itching and unusual discharge.
    • Symptoms: Vaginal or penile discharge, itching, pain during urination or sex, but over 75% of infections are asymptomatic.
    • Diagnostic options: Wet-mount microscopy is the traditional method due to low cost and point-of-care capabilities; NAATs/PCR are frequently used due to high sensitivity and specificity; bacterial culture is also available but infrequently used.
  4. Mycoplasma Genitalium8,9 (M. genitalium)
    • A slow-growing bacterial infection that has been recently recognized by the CDC as an STI. The CDC recommends only testing symptomatic individuals.
    • Symptoms: Largely asymptomatic, but when symptomatic can cause abnormal vaginal or penile discharge, painful urination, and has been linked to PID.
    • Diagnostic options: CDC recommends NAATs/PCR as Mycoplasma Genitalium is challenging to culture and cannot be detected via gram stain.
  5. Syphilis8 (Treponema pallidum)
    • A bacterial infection with distinct stages, often starting with painless sores. It can mimic other diseases, so it can be difficult to differentiate based on patient history and exam alone in the early stages of illness.
    • Symptoms: Sores (chancre), rash, swollen lymph nodes, or asymptomatic in early stages.
    • Diagnostic options: Serologic testing is crucial, typically starting with a non-treponemal test followed by a confirmatory treponemal test; NAATs and direct fluorescence antibody testing are also commercially available.
  6. Human Papillomavirus (HPV)8,10
    • A viral infection with several strains, some of which cause genital warts and others can lead to cervical or other cancers.
    • Symptoms: Genital warts, abnormal pap smears (in women).
    • Diagnostic options: Cytology (Pap Test), NAATs, Hybrid Capture 2 Test, genotyping and histopathology.
  7. Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)8
    • A viral infection that causes recurrent sores or blisters.
    • Symptoms: Painful blisters or sores in the genital, anal, or oral areas.
    • Diagnostic options: NAATs/PCR, viral culture, serologic testing, cytologic detection (Tzanck prep), direct fluorescent antibody testing.
  8. HIV8,12 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
    • The virus that causes AIDS, which affects the immune system.
    • Symptoms: Flu-like symptoms early on, followed by a long period with few or no symptoms.
    • Diagnostic options: The CDC recommends fourth-generation HIV-½ Antigen/Antibody (Ag/Ab) combination immunoassays for initial HIV testing. Other available tests are RNA testing, rapid point-of-care HIV tests (positives should be confirmed with a lab-based Ag/Ab assay), HIV home-test kits (test HIV antibodies).
  9. Hepatitis B and C8,13
    • Viral infections that affect the liver and can be transmitted sexually.
    • Symptoms: Jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain.
    • Diagnostic options: Serology is the cornerstone of hepatitis B testing, looking at a combination of antigens and antibodies to determine active, chronic infections or immune status. The initial Hepatitis C test is an anti-HCV antibody test, followed by HCV RNA (PCR), which confirms active infection and is used to diagnose both acute and chronic hepatitis C.

Conclusion

As research continues to highlight the benefits of PCR testing—such as improved accuracy, faster results, reduced healthcare costs, and better clinical outcomes—it is clear that both accurate and expedited diagnostic tests are essential in managing and preventing the spread of STIs. By identifying key pathogens and using the most effective diagnostic methods, healthcare providers can work together to prevent complications, reduce transmission, and promote better sexual health overall.

References

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, January 25). CDC estimates 1 in 5 people in the U.S. have a sexually transmitted infection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  2. Workowski, K. A., Bachmann, L. H., Chan, P. A., Johnston, C. M., Muzny, C. A., Park, I., Reno, H., Zenilman, J. M., & Bolan, G. A. (2021). Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports, 70(4), 1–187. Link
  3. Evans, A., Doshi, R., Yeaw, J., Coyle, K., Goldberg, S., Wang, E., Fragala, M. S., & Reddy, J. (2025). Healthcare utilization and costs following molecular diagnostic testing among patients with vaginitis. Journal of comparative effectiveness research, 14(1), e240173. Link
  4. Evans, A., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Utilization of Syndromic Vaginitis Diagnostic Testing Reduces 6-Month Follow-Up Outpatient Service Healthcare Costs-A Real-World Data Analysis. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 12(22), 2204. Link
  5. Evans, A., Singh, V., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Molecular Testing for Women’s Gynecologic Health: Real-World Impact on Health Care Costs. Population health management, 27(6), 405–407. Link
  6. Choe, H. S., Lee, D. S., Lee, S. J., Hong, S. H., Park, D. C., Lee, M. K., Kim, T. H., & Cho, Y. H. (2013). Performance of Anyplex™ II multiplex real-time PCR for the diagnosis of seven sexually transmitted infections: comparison with currently available methods. International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, 17(12), e1134–e1140. Link
  1. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  2. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  3. McGowin, C. L., & Anderson-Smits, C. (2011). Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women. PLoS pathogens, 7(5), e1001324. Link
  4. Arbyn, M., Ronco, G., Anttila, A., Meijer, C. J., Poljak, M., Ogilvie, G., Koliopoulos, G., Naucler, P., Sankaranarayanan, R., & Peto, J. (2012). Evidence regarding human papillomavirus testing in secondary prevention of cervical cancer. Vaccine, 30 Suppl 5, F88–F99. Link
  5. Gnann, J. W., & Whitley, R. J. (2016). Genital herpes. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(7), 666–674. Link
  6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.-b). Human immunodeficiency virus / HIV. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  7. Kwo, P. Y., Cohen, S. M., & Lim, J. K. (2017). ACG Clinical Guideline: Evaluation of Abnormal Liver Chemistries. The American journal of gastroenterology, 112(1), 18–35. Link

References

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, January 25). CDC estimates 1 in 5 people in the U.S. have a sexually transmitted infection. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  2. Workowski, K. A., Bachmann, L. H., Chan, P. A., Johnston, C. M., Muzny, C. A., Park, I., Reno, H., Zenilman, J. M., & Bolan, G. A. (2021). Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports, 70(4), 1–187. Link
  3. Evans, A., Doshi, R., Yeaw, J., Coyle, K., Goldberg, S., Wang, E., Fragala, M. S., & Reddy, J. (2025). Healthcare utilization and costs following molecular diagnostic testing among patients with vaginitis. Journal of comparative effectiveness research, 14(1), e240173. Link
  4. Evans, A., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Utilization of Syndromic Vaginitis Diagnostic Testing Reduces 6-Month Follow-Up Outpatient Service Healthcare Costs-A Real-World Data Analysis. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 12(22), 2204. Link
  5. Evans, A., Singh, V., Fragala, M. S., Upadhyay, P., French, A., Goldberg, S. E., & Reddy, J. (2024). Molecular Testing for Women’s Gynecologic Health: Real-World Impact on Health Care Costs. Population health management, 27(6), 405–407. Link
  6. Choe, H. S., Lee, D. S., Lee, S. J., Hong, S. H., Park, D. C., Lee, M. K., Kim, T. H., & Cho, Y. H. (2013). Performance of Anyplex™ II multiplex real-time PCR for the diagnosis of seven sexually transmitted infections: comparison with currently available methods. International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, 17(12), e1134–e1140. Link
  7. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  8. Davies, B., Turner, K. M. E., Benfield, T., Frølund, M., Andersen, B., Westh, H., Danish Chlamydia Study, & Ward, H. (2018). Pelvic inflammatory disease risk following negative results from chlamydia nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) versus non-NAATs in Denmark: A retrospective cohort. PLoS medicine, 15(1), e1002483. Link
  9. McGowin, C. L., & Anderson-Smits, C. (2011). Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women. PLoS pathogens, 7(5), e1001324. Link
  10. Arbyn, M., Ronco, G., Anttila, A., Meijer, C. J., Poljak, M., Ogilvie, G., Koliopoulos, G., Naucler, P., Sankaranarayanan, R., & Peto, J. (2012). Evidence regarding human papillomavirus testing in secondary prevention of cervical cancer. Vaccine, 30 Suppl 5, F88–F99. Link
  11. Gnann, J. W., & Whitley, R. J. (2016). Genital herpes. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(7), 666–674. Link
  12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.-b). Human immunodeficiency virus / HIV. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Link
  13. Kwo, P. Y., Cohen, S. M., & Lim, J. K. (2017). ACG Clinical Guideline: Evaluation of Abnormal Liver Chemistries. The American journal of gastroenterology, 112(1), 18–35. Link

Allie Priego, PA-C DMSc

Medical Science Liaison

Allie Priego, PA-C DMSc

Medical Science Liaison

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Dr. Pallavi Upadhyay • Feb 10, 2025

Are We in a ‘Quademic’? COVID-19, Flu, RSV, and Norovirus Infections Surge

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